Nutritional Anthropology

The Bond Effect
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Chapter 9
Disease and the Bond Effect

We are fortunate that, in modern industrialized societies, a great many health scourges of the past are now a distant memory. Public health engineering, by bringing clean water and safely disposing of sewage and garbage, eradicated many diseases like cholera, typhoid, and bubonic plague. Medical science with its hygiene, antiseptics, drugs, and vaccinations brought deadly infectious diseases like smallpox, polio, tuberculosis, syphilis, and diphtheria under control. Nutritional science discovered how to eliminate deficiency diseases like scurvy, rickets, and pellagra. Surgeons learned how to cut out appendixes, amputate gangrenous limbs, and reset broken bones without killing us.

We have dealt with just about all the afflictions that nature can throw at us, so what is left? The answer is the reason for this book: self-inflicted ones. These are the diseases that were virtually unknown in prehistoric times: cancer, heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, arthritis, senile dementia, and many more. Most, if not all, of these “diseases of civilization” are quite avoidable. Many that have become entrenched can be abated or even cured. In all of them, our eating patterns are the major factor, although often other lifestyle factors play a role.

In our travels through this book, we have encountered many instances of how our choice of “body fuel” makes the machine run well or run badly. We looked at the type of feeding pattern that operated during the formative time of the human race in east Africa. We called it the “Savanna Model” and saw how the San still lived like that in recent history. They enjoyed enviable health and well-being, in spite of their rudimentary lifestyle in which there is an absence of both medical support and of many food groups that we think of as normal. We witnessed the radical change in dietary habits when humans first took up farming and saw how mass-marketing techniques were used to change and manipulate our feeding habits. We hinted at the kinds of diseases that humans began to suffer as a result.

In chapter 3, we looked at the various food groups and spelled out some of the impacts on our health. Then, we reviewed the diets of various populations around the world and examined our biochemistry, digestive systems, and modern diet from a scientific point of view. We reached some conclusions about how

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dietary errors are making us sick. We drew up the “Owner’s Manual” for the ideal food supply and eating pattern. Chapter 8 painted a picture of how our social environment diverges from our savanna-bred natures. This discord stresses us in many ways, another factor leading to ill-health.

Now, we draw all these threads together and present the material from the other side: that of specific diseases and the factors that make us vulnerable to them. Not surprisingly, there are many common factors. This reinforces the notion that adopting a lifestyle that mirrors our anciently programmed minds and bodies is the sensible way to go.

The human species is remarkable for how little its members vary genetically from each other, no matter where they live around the globe. [1]. Chimpanzee populations show ten times the genetic variation that humans do. In other words, we are all still built to the same body plan and the same basic message is good for all of us. Nevertheless, there is some variation in our genetic makeup. We all have slight differences in susceptibility to disease, and our bodies have differing abilities to circumvent deficiencies in the diet. That is why, even though eating and living the same way, different people will break out in different illnesses.

This chapter is devoted to setting out our current knowledge of what aspects of our lives are helpful and what aspects are harmful for specific illnesses and what we should do about it. With regard to food, we know that there are literally tens of thousands of active compounds in the foods we eat, particularly non-starchy plant food. We can’t define exactly how all these compounds work, but we know that they need to work together as a team.

We need to rid ourselves of the “magic bullet” mentality, the notion that there is a straight line from cause to effect, that for each disease there is one simple fix. On the contrary, most of our modern diseases are due to a complex interaction of many factors that are going wrong at the same time. We cannot micromanage or second-guess many of these processes. It is not good enough to cherry-pick from the menu of the Savanna Model. Ultimately, we have to nourish the body the way it was designed—with the complete package.

Finally, it is a fallacy to think that if you are sick with a modern degenerative disease, it is because it is “in the genes.” Cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, and other such diseases have been increasing alarmingly just in the last 50 years. But the genetic makeup of the population has not changed one bit in that time. The only thing that has changed is lifestyle! Some people will be genetically more vulnerable than others to certain diseases, but the vulnerability is only exposed—and expressed—when a discordant lifestyle pushes the body into failure. An extension of this fallacy is saying that a disease “runs in the family.” What runs in families, apart from genes? Bad habits!

Our fate is not written in our genes—it is in our own hands. We just have to take responsibility and accept the idea of changing our habits. Note that putting

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your lifestyle right is not necessarily a substitute for medical treatment once you have got a disorder. However, by doing so, you will ensure that the medical treatment has the best chance of success.

CANCER

What causes cancer? Smoking? Sunlight? Radiation? Pesticides? Barbecued meat? Microwaves? These are some of the answers likely to be given by the average citizen, yet he or she would be wrong. All these have strong links to cancer, but they cannot be the root cause. Much of the population is exposed to these carcinogens, yet only a small minority actually suffers dangerous tumors as a consequence. [2]. 

You are probably aware that our bodies are made of trillions of cells. As a rule of thumb, a normal adult is considered to be made up of something like 30 trillion cells. They are the basic building units of living bodies. Some creatures, like bacteria, consist of just one cell. Cells are where a myriad of chemical reactions take place, where energy is generated, and, above all, where our genes are located. Just about every cell has a full copy of our genetic blueprint, the DNA.

Most cells either are damaged or wear out as time goes by. When this happens, they are programmed to die. Their life span depends on where they are in the body. It can be as little as a few days—the cells lining the colon are such a case. Red blood cells have a life span of four months; the tendon cells can live for as long as several years. To replace cells that die, living cells divide themselves into identical copies under instruction from nearby cells. That means carefully making a duplicate of every single piece of machinery in the cell, including the DNA and each strand of DNA is composed of over 10 million molecules. Ideally, all this copying takes place without a mistake.

Not surprisingly, something goes wrong from time to time: a cell does not self-destruct when it is supposed to and becomes immortal; a cell keeps dividing itself uncontrollably; or things go wrong with the copying process and rogue DNA is created. Sometimes these things happen all at once, and then we have the makings of a cancer cell. Such cells mean trouble, but there is worse to come. A small percentage of such cells have the diabolic ability to detach themselves from where they are, float around the body, and put down roots elsewhere. In this way, they spread seeds of cancer into every part of the body.

The 30 trillion cells must cooperate with each other to keep a human being healthy over the course of a lifetime. Because of the huge numbers involved, there are bound to be a few cells going cancerous every day; we are even born with precancerous cells. Why is it, then, that we don’t all die of cancer at an early age? The chief answer is that the evolutionary mechanism has evolved a battery of defenses that fight cancer cells at every turn. These defenses are collectively known as the immune system.

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The root cause of cancer is not, then, the various provocative factors (tobacco, radiation, pesticides, etc.), but rather a failure of the immune system. It is this lowering of the defenses that allows cancer to flourish and take hold. When that happens, conventional medicine takes over.

In spite of the hundreds of billions of dollars thrown into the “war on cancer” since the 1970s, progress has been slow. The chief tools are still the same: cut it out, poison it with chemotherapy, or nuke it with radiation. Certainly the techniques have become more targeted and sophisticated and success rates have climbed. There is more focus on detecting cancers early, so that these techniques have a better chance of winning out. Unfortunately, the outlook is often grim for cancers that have spread to other areas of the body (metastasized). In the United States, by the time they are discovered, 72% of lung cancers, 57% of colorectal cancers, and 34% of breast cancers have metastasized. [4].

Until recently, conventional medicine has not paid a lot of attention to repairing the defenses, let alone mobilizing the body’s remarkable powers of

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self-repair. Often, cancer patients receive no nutritional or lifestyle advice. Such patients should ask themselves the question: “If I got cancer doing what I was doing before, what should I do differently now?” We would all agree that it would be best if people lived their lives so that their defenses against cancer are invasion-proof. If cancer has taken hold, it is even more important to repair the defenses and keep them that way.

There are three main weaknesses that can arise with the immune system. Two of them, depressed immune system and overloaded immune system, are particularly responsible for allowing cancers to flourish. The way we live often depresses and overloads our immune systems. By correcting these departures from the Savanna Model, we will give ourselves the best chance to avoid cancer and to recover from it.

Cancer Avoidance and Recovery

Strategy 1 Eat a Strictly Low-Glycemic Diet

The way we eat today drives blood sugar and insulin to abnormal, unhealthy levels. This is a common phenomenon: it is estimated that 90% of Americans and 75% of Europeans suffer from it, even though they do not feel it. However, those high insulin levels depress the immune system and allow cancerous growths to flourish. This is the first way in which the Western, high-glycemic diet is a culprit in the cancer epidemic.

The second consequence of a high-glycemic diet is more direct. Let me illustrate it with this example. When doctors want to highlight a cancer on an x-ray, they inject you with glucose. The cancerous cells gorge themselves on the sugar and they light up like a Christmas tree on the x-ray negatives. Cancers need food to survive—and the best food is a rich supply of blood sugar. In the West, we unwittingly oblige by gorging ourselves, and all those pre-cancerous cells in us, on a high-starch, high-sugar diet. By following the Savanna Model feeding pattern, the diet is automatically low glycemic, one that naturally starves cancers of nutrients and avoids undermining the immune system.

Strategy 2 Maintain a Low Percentage of Body Fat

We saw in chapter 1 that cancer is absent from the San Bushman. Moreover, on the height-weight criterion, they have a low body-mass index (BMI), which averages around 19. This is considered to be at the low end of the “healthy” range in the West. In contrast, everything we know about being overweight tells us that it increases dramatically the risk of cancer. In fact, being slightly thinner than “normal” (like the San) is even better. Body mass index is a rather crude rule of thumb, which takes no account of stocky or slender build or degree of muscularity. The really important criterion is the percentage of body fat. The San, with their low BMI of 19, have a body fat percentage of around 10%. West-

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erners do not need to get that low, but they should aim for a maximum of 15% for men and 20% for women. It is also important to keep up lean muscle mass.

Strategy 3 Eat a Diet Rich in Non-Starchy Plant Food

Most people’s bodies are starved for micronutrients. Non-starchy plant food is where all those tens of thousands of essential immune system–nourishing molecules come from. Thousands of studies confirm the beneficial effect that consumption of various fruits, salads, and vegetables has on cancer prevention and cure. Even the residues from plant food that arrive in the colon have their part to play: the “good” bacteria grow on them and feed the immune system with compounds called short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as butyrate and propionic acid. These are absorbed through the colon into the bloodstream, where they act to depress cancer cell proliferation. There is a bonus—these SCFAs are also potent “bad” bacteria killers, cleaning up the colon from infection.

Strategy 4 Eat a Low-Fat Diet with Essential Fatty Acids in Balance

The Japanese have the lowest incidence of cancer in the industrialized world. This is due in part to their traditional, very low-fat diet—less than 10% of calories. A low-fat diet is cancer fighting. Furthermore, thanks to the absence of dairy products and animal meat in their traditional diet, their intake of “bad” saturated fats is minimal. Many studies have shown that saturated fats, particularly hydrogenated and trans-fats, are powerful immune depressors, allowing cancers to flourish. Finally, the traditional consumption of oily fish provides them with the “good” omega-3 oils. We are unwittingly depressing our immune system with a diet overloaded with omega-6 oils. Drive these out of your diet and favor the omega-3 oils at every opportunity. But don’t go too far. The ideal is a 1-to-1 balance, but you don’t have to micromanage it—just follow the Savanna Model and the ratio works out just fine.

Strategy 5 Good Colon Health

In chapter 5, we emphasized how the colon, together with its contents of flora, should be functioning as a vital organ, contributing to the body’s healthy operation. The way we eat today does the opposite: it leaves us with rotten colon health. The residues of the food we have eaten are the wrong kind: they nourish “bad” bacteria, yeasts, and funguses. Some kinds of foods destroy the intestinal villi, the incredibly fine hairs that absorb vital nutrients into the bloodstream. Some irritate the stem cells in the colon lining to the point where they become cancerous. Poor combinations of foods (for example, hamburger and bun) deliver poorly digested particles to the colon, where more bad flora feed on them. The immune system is designed to receive nourishment from a well-functioning colon that produces the vital compounds it needs to combat cancer. When they are missing, its efficiency is undermined.

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The coup de grace is given by bad bacteria and the antinutrients found in cereals, pulses, and dairy that make the colon “leaky.” Bad bacteria, yeasts, funguses, and even tiny food particles flood into the bloodstream. This is a major challenge to the immune system, which has enough to do fighting off infections and dealing with cancerous cells. When it is overwhelmed, it releases its grip on cancer cells, allowing them to slip through its defenses.

Strategy 6 Physical Activity

Physical activity plays an essential role in maintaining many kinds of body functions. In our ancestral past, a certain level of exercise was, by force of circumstances, occurring day in and day out. The human organism came to depend on it. One of these activities is to pump the circulation of the lymphatic system. Without physical activity, lymph does not circulate, it stagnates. That is bad because the lymphatic system plays an essential role in delivering the immune system’s heavy artillery to the battle front (and carrying away the debris). This is one important, often neglected, aspect of physical activity. Exercise every day, just as happened quite naturally in the daily lives of our ancient ancestors.

Strategy 7 Get Enough Sunshine

In the human homeland, our ancestors were naked and exposed all day to the tropical sun. The San still live that way. Of course, their skin tone (copper color) is particularly adapted to that way of living. Skin color is one of the most obvious ways in which humans vary around the world. As humans spread to less sunny areas, their skin color became lighter, even white. It was necessary to absorb sunlight more readily, particularly as a large percentage of the body had to be covered with clothes. Avoiding sunlight is another unsuspected way we undermine our immune system.

We have overcompensated for fears of skin cancer by staying indoors too much! In a recent study, women who lived in the sunniest parts of the United States had three times less risk of breast cancer compared to those who lived in gloomy, overcast regions. [5]. In another study, men who had the most exposure to sunlight had the least risk of developing aggressive prostate cancer later in life. [6]. Other research shows that adults with good levels of vitamin D have half the risk of colon cancer. [7]. Recent studies reinforce the message: sunshine helps melanoma sufferers recover and it prevents people getting lymphatic cancer. [8]. Dr. William Grant estimates the yearly toll at 100,000 cases and 40,000 deaths from lack-of-sunshine cancers. [9]. This is four times the mortality from skin cancer.

One big reason is that people living in gloomy parts of the world are starved of the vital immune system food, vitamin D, sometimes called the sunshine vitamin. People living in sunny areas were producing much higher levels 

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of vitamin D under the influence of sunlight. We don’t need much vitamin D— just 10 to 20 micrograms per day. It is toxic in large quantities. The body sorts this out just fine if the chief source is sunshine. The trick is to get sunlight regularly but avoid burning. Asecond reason is that sunlight regulates production of hormones such as melatonin and cortisol. When they are not being secreted in the right patterns, the immune system is depressed.

Strategy 8 Reduce Chronic Stress

The folkloric idea that major life stressors, such as divorce, death of a child, or loss of a job, can trigger cancer has yet to be proved. However, an unremitting level of background stress does depress the immune system, making us vulnerable not only to cancer but a wide range of diseases. [10].

Put another way, we have a stress response designed for the kinds of problems that occurred in savanna life. Most of the time our ancestors were living in harmony with their surroundings, so the stress response was only triggered in short bursts at irregular intervals. Our lives now are a continuous source of mental pressure. Stanford neuroscientist Robert Sapolsky observes, “Stress-related disease emerges, predominantly, out of the fact that we so often activate a physiological system that has evolved for responding to acute physical emergencies, but we turn it on for months on end, worrying about mortgages, relationships, and promotions.” [11]. It is certainly a challenge to restructure our lives so as to limit this level of background or “chronic” stress, but do it we must.

Breast Cancer

Everything said about cancer in general applies to breast cancer in particular. Nevertheless, there are some special considerations. “We are what we eat” might be a cliché, but it is particularly apt for women’s breasts. A woman who eats a lot of saturated fats and trans-fatty acids (hydrogenated fats) has more of those bad fats stored in her breasts. Such women are at a higher risk of developing breast cancer. [12] Those who have good levels of the omega-3 oils, whether fish oils or alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), have a lower risk. [13].

Breast cancers mostly develop from milk-producing cells in the breasts that are stimulated to divide by estrogen. This stimulation occurs through a molecule on their surface called an “estrogen receptor.” The purpose is to multiply milk cells every month in preparation for a possible pregnancy. However, the more estrogen receptors there are, the more likely something will go wrong in a cell and it will multiply out of control. What agent might do this? A major one is the powerful hormone insulin. Abnormally high insulin levels increase the number of estrogen receptors in the breast by a factor of 12 [14]. With 12 times the number of receptors, there are 12 times as many chances that one of the milk-producing cells will become cancerous. This is another way in which the high-glycemic Western diet particularly encourages breast cancer.

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A second factor is the lifetime exposure of a woman’s breasts to estrogen. Today, girls are arriving at puberty much earlier than nature intended. Their breasts are exposed to estrogen for a longer period, so they are more likely to develop breast cancer later in life. A girl who starts menstruating at age 10 has three times the risk of breast cancer compared to starting at 15 [15]. On the other hand, menopause around 50 is quite normal. Nevertheless, the same mechanism is at work: menopause at 55 doubles the risk of cancer compared to menopause at 45 and triples it compared to menopause at 35.

Why is it that girls’ periods start earlier these days? Obesity, a high-fat diet, a high-glycemic diet, and a diet rich in dairy and soy products are all factors driving their bodies in this unhealthy direction. Soy products can also promote breast cancer directly [16].

In another twist, women who have children, who have children early and/or have many children, and who breastfeed all have a reduced risk of breast cancer [17] There are many complex hormonal operations that science has yet to unravel and understand, but it all comes back to estrogen, progesterone, and other sex hormones. In our ancestral past, women were breastfeeding almost continuously for some 30 years while they were fertile. We might suppose that the body depends on this format to function properly. It is tough to emulate this pattern in today’s world. Nevertheless, it is one more strong argument for breastfeeding and doing it for as long as possible.

Finally, breast cancer is practically unknown outside the West. You don’t even have to clamber over the Himalayas or the Andes to find peoples who live free of breast cancer. Take a comfortable plane to Tokyo, Singapore, or Hong Kong and you will immediately be among peoples who live longer than Westerners do and whose women do not suffer from breast cancer. Their secret? Traditionally, they have very low-fat, low-glycemic diets. That might not last for much longer: the Japanese diet is becoming Westernized, and the rates of breast cancer are rising.

Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is entirely due to smoking, right? Wrong—many people who have never smoked get lung cancer, and many smokers never get it. The Japanese are one of the heaviest smoking populations in the world—and yet one of the longest lived. Japanese longevity is not due to smoking but in spite of it. But they get away with smoking because their diet, while not perfect, is a lot better than the one that is common in the West. In other words, the Japanese diet, turns out to be closer to the ideal diet for the human species than what is eaten elsewhere. Their focus on fish (which contains omega-3 oils) instead of meat is beneficial. [18]. In general, researchers find that the micronutrient connection is critical. [19]. People who have a high consumption of non-starchy plant food are much less likely to get lung cancer, whether or not they are smokers.

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Colon Cancer

With approximately 135,000 new cases reported each year, colon cancer is the third most commonly diagnosed cancer in the United States, and it is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths. Studies have shown that a variety of diet and behavioral modifications reduce colon cancer risk in the general population.

It is hardly surprising that what you put into your mouth can have dramatic effects on what happens at the far end of the digestive tract. You don’t even have to eat like a primitive tribesman to avoid colon cancer. It is virtually unknown among many societies such as the Japanese and Chinese. Some of the causes are really surprising—who would have thought that high insulin levels might be a factor? But they are [20]. So, too, are high-fat diets, the consumption of saturated fats and trans-fats, and diets that are dominant in omega-6 oils [21].

Of course, the remarks about colon health (Strategy 5) have a direct bearing on colon cancer. Not only does poor colon health contribute to cancers developing in other parts of the body, it contributes directly to cancer developing in the colon itself.

Prostate Cancer

Asian men have much lower rates of prostate cancer than Western men  [22]. The same factors that are good for suppressing cancer in general, work well on the prostate too. The Asian diet, low in animal fat and dairy, high in omega-3 oils, and rich in non-starchy plant food is good [23]. In contrast, a high intake of omega-6 oils encourages prostate cancer [24].

Abnormal testosterone production is a major risk factor for prostate cancer. Some compounds, such as lignans, lock up testosterone and stop it from creating damage. Lignans are a kind of plant fiber. The highest concentrations of lignans are found in flaxseed, followed by squash, broccoli, carrots, and asparagus. Studies on flaxseed, which also contain high levels of omega-3 oils and fiber, show that they are indeed great cancer fighters [25].

Sunshine is also protective. Dr. Esther John found that men who had received the most sunshine during a lifetime were 50% less likely to develop prostate cancer than those who received the least [26]. Ejaculation is good, according to research by Dr. Graham Giles. The more often men ejaculate, between the ages of 20 and 50, the less likely they are to develop prostate cancer; the greatest protective effect is for a man in his twenties [27]. Dr. Giles speculates that frequent ejaculation keeps carcinogens from accumulating in the prostate gland.

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Heart disease, atherosclerosis, thrombosis, strokes, and high blood pressure—this cluster of diseases has only become common in recent times, and chiefly in Western, industrial societies [28]. They were unknown among primitive tribes, such as the Australian Aborigines, the Tarahumara hill tribe of Mexico, the Eskimos, and

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the San Bushman [29] Studies on tribes such as the Vilcabamba of the Andes and the Tarahumara of Mexico show that they have low blood pressure and an extremely low incidence of cardiovascular disease. Rarely does their blood pressure exceed 130/75, even among centenarians, and they have 13 times the rate of centenarians as America [30]. As recently as the 1930s, heart disease was rare in America [31]. Even today, Okinawans and Cretans do not suffer these diseases. As far as we can tell, they were unknown amongst our Pleistocene forebears.

What is at the root of these illnesses? Heart disease is any disorder that affects the heart’s ability to function normally. The most common cause of heart disease is narrowing or blockage of the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart itself. This happens slowly over time. Arteries start to block when they are inflamed. This process, known as atherosclerosis (“hardening of the arteries”) can happen anywhere in the body, including the brain. Special white blood cells called macrophages respond to this inflammation by rushing in to help “clean up” the damage. However, in doing so they also damage the artery walls, which in turn become ideal sites for fatty plaque to accumulate. Repetition of this cycle narrows arteries and raises the potential for clots, heart attack, and stroke.

Sometimes, under abnormal conditions, blood coagulates and forms a clot in a blood vessel. This is not supposed to happen, but when it does it is called a thrombosis. The consequences are serious: the clot blocks the blood supply to the affected part and can cause it to die. When a thrombosis occurs in the brain, it is called a stroke; in the lung, it is a pulmonary embolism; in an artery supplying the heart, it is a heart attack.

 
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High blood pressure can occur for several reasons. When arteries become blocked, the heart has to pump harder. For example, kidneys, to filter blood properly, need to have a decent pressure across the filters. Loss of pressure can occur if the arteries in the kidney are partly blocked by atherosclerosis; it then sends signals to the heart to pump harder. In another example, the body can secrete hormones that cause blood vessels to constrict, which causes the heart to pump harder to maintain flow. Similar hormones may cause the blood to be thicker than normal and again the heart has to pump harder. The result is that the heart has to step up the pressure to force the blood to flow where it is needed— hence, high blood pressure.

What causes blood to thicken and clot abnormally, for blood vessels to constrict, and for arteries to become inflamed? There are several factors, almost all of them dietary. Overconsumption of omega-6 oils such as sunflower oil, peanut oil, and corn oil produce “bad” prostaglandins that increase blood clotting, blood pressure, and inflammation, clogging arteries with plaque. These hormones also encourage the liver to overproduce cholesterol and stimulate the pancreas to overproduce insulin. Right here we have one reason why heart disease only became common since the 1930s: these vegetable oils only became abundant after World War II. In contrast, the omega-3 oils produce “good” prostaglandins that do the opposite: decrease blood pressure, decrease coagulation, decrease inflammation, and reduce plaque [32].

A second powerful effect is provided by the hormone insulin, which is produced in abnormal quantities by a high-glycemic diet. Insulin acts in ways that provoke the overproduction of similar blood clotting and blood pressure factors [33]. Insulin itself inflames the artery walls directly. In other words, foods that are glycemic and/or insulinemic—and combinations of such foods—are part of the problem. This means that the principle culprits are starches like grains and potatoes, sugars, and insulinemic foods like yogurt and potato.

Some saturated fats also inflame arteries. The chief perpetrators are myristic acid and palmitic acid, which are the kinds of fats found in dairy products, tropical oils (like palm oil), and red meats (beef, pork and lamb). That is why all nutritional professionals say we should avoid them. But there are worse: the artificial saturated fats called hydrogenated and trans-fats are even more harmful to the arteries. The American Institute of Medicine states that the only safe level of trans-fat is zero [34]. Trans-fats and hydrogenated fats are found in vegetable shortening, margarine, potato chips, crackers, doughnuts, cookies, fried foods, cakes, pies, and pizzas.

A high-salt diet is not helpful. Salt, just by being in the bloodstream in abnormal amounts, damages arteries [35] For a high percentage of the population, salt also raises blood pressure. It is significant that strokes are the biggest killer in Japan. Japanese smoking and high salt intake (from soy sauce) have something to do with it. In contrast, high blood pressure yields well to a high plant-food diet [36]

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The story on artery damage is not yet finished: where proteins come from is also significant. Animal protein is potentially atherogenic (artery damaging) and milk proteins, notably the casein in cheese, particularly so [37] How can this be? After all, we are naturally adapted to consuming animal proteins, albeit in modest proportions. The answer lies with a waste product from animal protein digestion called homocysteine. Homocysteine, if it is not swept up quickly by the body, does a lot of damage to arteries. The naturally adapted “sweepers” are micronutrients readily found in non-starchy plant food. Fruits, salads, and vegetables are the natural—and essential—companions to the consumption of animal matter [38].

 Research also shows that blood pressure, on average, increases the further one lives from the equator. The evidence suggests that it is the lack of sunshine that causes the problem. More precisely, it is the absence of the sunshine vitamin, vitamin D [39]. Get enough sunshine, you make enough vitamin D and reduce your blood pressure.

How reversible are these diseases? That depends. The main objective has to be to stop the rot. The risk of strokes and thrombosis can be quickly reduced by changing dietary habits. Thromboxane, the prostaglandin chiefly responsible for abnormal blood clotting, is reduced almost overnight by cutting bad fats. High blood pressure is brought down to a greater or lesser degree over a few months. It is even possible to reverse atherosclerosis both by eating plenty of plant food and by losing any excess weight [40].

The Role of Cholesterol

Cholesterol levels of hunter-gatherers are low. Stuart Truswell and John Hansen found that the San Bushmen have one of the lowest cholesterol levels in the world [42]. Total cholesterol levels for all age groups (including old people) are around 120 mg/dl. Other researchers found that African Pygmies (110 mg/dl),

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Australian Aborigines (140 mg/dl), and Tanzanian Hadza (110 mg/dl) all have total cholesterol levels in the same ballpark [43].

Cholesterol comes in several varieties. Two of them, low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) are dubbed “bad” cholesterol and high-density lipoproteins (HDL) are dubbed “good” cholesterol. Bad cholesterol has been portrayed as the Darth Vader to our arteries and our heart, but what does it do? It fell under suspicion because inflammatory particles of oxidized cholesterol build up in the arteries to create the dreaded plaque. However, the real question should be: “Why is the body causing cholesterol to oxidize, and why is it allowing it to settle in arteries?”

Our internal plumbing is not like boiler pipes that passively fur up. Rather, our arteries are made of living tissue that inflames, scars, produces hormones, and sends signals to other parts of the body. Why do the cells that line our arteries decide to capture cholesterol molecules, allow them to oxidize, and allow them to build into plaque?

The answer seems to be that immune system cells, the macrophages, which have been summoned to repair artery damage, latch on to the cholesterol particles and try to pull them through the artery wall where they get stuck. With the passage of time, the cholesterol particles oxidize and create inflammation, and so the inflammation and the cycle starts all over again. So, the problem is not the cholesterol as such, it is the problem of previous damage to the artery wall. Even so, all need not be lost if the cholesterol does not oxidize. This is the case for those who consume sufficient quantities of oxidation fighters, antioxidants, which are found almost entirely in non-starchy vegetation.

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The conventional view is that heart disease would be reduced if people had lower levels of cholesterol circulating in the blood. In a crude way, this is true: with less of the stuff to be trapped and oxidized, the slower the buildup of inflamed plaque. But lowering cholesterol by itself does not deal with the fundamental problem: inflammation. In fact, the links between cholesterol levels and heart disease are rather weak, but they are much stronger with homocysteine. This is not surprising, since homocysteine is a strong provoker of inflammation.

Nevertheless, we might ask ourselves why modern Western populations have such high levels of cholesterol. The basic answer is that our bodies make it in abnormal amounts as a reaction to dietary errors. The chief one is the abnormally high level of insulin, which provokes the liver into making abnormal amounts of cholesterol—yet another wickedness perpetrated by a highglycemic, high-insulinemic diet.

In contrast, bad cholesterol is reduced by a diet rich in soluble fiber [44]. This is something that most Westerners do not have, yet which our bodies expect to receive. Other studies show that exercise reduces cholesterol levels. And stress, by provoking hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, has the side effect of raising cholesterol levels. In complex biological organisms, everything is interconnected in ways that we cannot imagine.

Contrary to the prevalent myth, consuming high-cholesterol foods like eggs has little effect on cholesterol levels, if the diet conforms to the Savanna Model [45]. As Paleolithic expert Boyd Eaton observes, the San Bushmen consumed just as much cholesterol as the average American, yet they maintained very low levels of cholesterol in the blood [46]. The message is the same: give the body the right tools and signals, and it sorts out these matters just fine.

So, high cholesterol levels are simply a pointer to possible cardiovascular disease. Reducing them with medication, in spite of the promotional hype, has little effect on your chances of dying of a heart attack [47]. Worse, medications increase your chances of getting depression, suicidal tendencies, cancer, and stroke. Pfizer, the maker of Lipitor, the most common cholesterol drug, states: “The patient should be put on a cholesterol lowering diet before receiving Lipitor” [48]. These medications work by blocking the liver from making cholesterol. So, what they are really doing is papering over the cracks caused by dysfunctional, insulin-producing diets.

Twelve Ways to Combat Cardiovascular Disease

1. Adopt a low-glycemic diet.

2. Consume a diet rich in non-starchy plant foods.

3. Consume animal protein only modestly.

4. Avoid dairy products.

5. Consume a diet low in animal fat and palm oil.

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6. Adopt a diet that eliminates hydrogenated and trans-fats.

7. Consume a diet that severely limits omega-6 oils.

8. Consume a diet rich in omega-3 oils.

9. Stop smoking.

10. Reduce salt intake to a minimum.

11. Practice at least the minimum amount of physical activity.

12. Change the way you lead your life to make it less stressful.

 We have seen that cardiovascular disease is a phenomenon that has hit us just in living memory. The causes are easily identifiable and easily put right. Take control of your life in the way nature intended and put behind you concerns of ever developing heart disease. If you already have it, you can bring it under control—it is reversible! Regarding the “noble savage,” who has perfect cardiovascular signs, how does he live? A lifestyle conforming to the Savanna Model in terms of diet, social environment, and physical activity. He eats plenty of non-starchy plant food and little bad protein, no bad fat, no bad carbohydrates, no sugars or grains, no potatoes, and no dairy products.

DIGESTIVE PROBLEMS

Indigestion

There used to be a TV commercial in which a New York cab driver suddenly hunches over and clutches his stomach in pain. “Aw, gee!” he gasps, “It must have been that pastrami sandwich.” So, what does he do? He reaches over to the glove compartment where he keeps a bottle of pills. This little sketch neatly encapsulates many things that are wrong with us today. Indigestion is a huge problem in the West, particularly America. Indigestion remedies are the biggest selling class of over-the-counter medications. As illustrated in the commercial, people have become so accustomed to indigestion that they keep bottles of pills available for every occasion. However, like the cab driver, no one stops to think about what they must be doing wrong. It didn’t even occur to the cab driver to stop eating pastrami sandwiches!

One of the major causes of indigestion is bad food combining. The cab driver, with his pastrami sandwich, had just eaten a bad food combination, protein with starch. Other bad combinations are dairy all by itself or with anything else, and fruit with anything. In the Savanna Model, bad food combining cannot really happen, because we are not consuming the food groups that give us problems: starches, dairy, and sugary fruit. Most people find they get immediate relief when they cease bad food combining. Other causes of indigestion are more obvious ones: eating too much, eating too late at night, eating on the run, alcohol abuse, and stress.

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Constipation and Diverticulosis

Over-the-counter constipation remedies follow closely after indigestion tablets in popularity, yet constipation is not a normal thing to be happening. Primitive societies consume up to 100 grams (g) of fiber a day from vegetation and fruits. Their intestines were healthy and they never suffered from intestinal diseases. The average American consumes only 11g of fiber per day. Don’t be sidetracked into eating bran products. Bran is abrasive and not at all what the intestinal tract is designed for. On the contrary, our Pleistocene past designed it for the “soft” soluble fibers like pectin and guar that are found in non-starchy plant food.

Again, the solution is extraordinarily simple. Follow the Savanna Model and consume high volumes of non-starchy plant food, up to 15 servings a day. This is not only best way to get regularity back to normal, but it is also best for colon health. No one will develop diverticulosis doing that either. If you already have it, this is the best remedy to get it under control and into remission.

A cautionary note: most people’s digestive tracts have been hardened into working only when whipped into action by harsh, insoluble fibers, so shift the emphasis to the soft fibers over a period of several weeks. Give the intestinal muscles time to respond to the subtler signals and time to find their natural tone again.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

(Irritable Bowel, Crohn’s Disease, Colitis, Celiac Disease)

Medical science struggles with “syndromes” like inflammatory bowel disease because it is missing an essential piece of the puzzle, a proper knowledge of nutrition. That is where other branches of science (like ours) come in. We know how the modern diet puts immense stress on the digestive tract and why the large bowel (colon) often gives way.

Antinutrient Connection. The main error is the consumption of grains, dairy products, and pulses. The human digestive tract cannot handle their content of allergens (such as gluten and lactose) and plant poisons (such as lectins). They inflame the gut, strip the delicate lining raw, and encourage bad bacteria, their toxins, and funguses.

Bad Food Combining Connection. Bad combinations of foods add to the misery. Starch and protein combinations are particularly harmful: not only do they feed inflammatory bacteria, the insulin reaction provokes wrenching gut spasms (digestive neuromuscular disease). The modern diet is also loaded with sulfides, often used as a preservative. Sulfides encourage overgrowth of “bad” sulfate-eating bacteria in the colon, which in turn provoke inflammatory bowel diseases. Not surprisingly, hot spices irritate the colon, so you should avoid chili, paprika, and cayenne pepper.

Allergen Connection. Celiac disease is a clear case of an allergic reaction to gluten. Humans should not be putting gluten into their bodies because, whether  

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or not they notice any reaction, damage is being done anyway. The remedy is straightforward: eliminate grains and all their derivatives, just as in the Savanna Model.

Sunshine Connection. The incidence of inflammatory bowel is rare near the equator, where ultraviolet light from the sun is intense and people produce abundant vitamin D. Dr. Margherita Cantorna of Pennsylvania State University tested the effect of vitamin D on inflammatory bowel disease and found that symptoms diminish or disappear with an adequate supply of vitamin D [49].

Plant Food Connection. A diet rich in the soluble fiber found in plant food is soothing and beneficial for inflammatory bowel. This is the kind of material that nature designed our colons to work on.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (Heartburn, Acid Reflux)

Heartburn occurs when stomach acid flows back into the esophagus and, quite literally, burns it. Heartburn affects a quarter of the population, representing a terrible burden of suffering, particularly because eliminating the cause is so easy. When put on the Savanna Model, I have seen some heartburn sufferers experience relief overnight. When gastroenterologists have tried it in their own practice, they too have found excellent results [50]. The chief decisive factors are good food combining and the absence of dairy products.

Researchers have identified other risk factors for heartburn, such as the consumption of hot spices like chili, cayenne, and paprika. Another study found higher risks of heartburn in obese people. The same study found that those who drank one or more carbonated soft drinks a day increased their risk of developing heartburn at night by almost a third, compared to patients who stayed away from them [51].

IMMUNE SYSTEM DYSFUNCTION

Sometimes the immune system goes berserk and actually causes disease. This happens when the immune system launches an attack when it should not. There are two types of target for such “rogue” attacks: foreign particles originating from outside the body and internal body tissues.

The immune system has a subtle job to do in deciding quickly whether or not to attack a foreign particle. A healthy immune system is extraordinarily good at this and rarely makes a mistake. However, a poorly tuned immune system often fails to recognize which particles are friendly (like many food proteins) and which are “enemy” (like viruses and bacteria). When it makes a mistake like this, the response is called an allergy and the foreign material is referred to as an allergen. Instead of ignoring the harmless foreign particles, the immune system unleashes its counterattack of inflammation, swelling, and mucus secretion. We perceive this inappropriate response as various ailments such as allergies and asthma (or “allergen diseases”).

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Rogue attacks on the body’s own tissues occur when the immune system fails to recognize its own body cells as “self” and launches an attack on various parts of the body. Killer T-cells, when they forget who hired them, attack innocent cells with friendly fire. We perceive the destruction as various ailments such as arthritis and multiple sclerosis (or “autoimmune diseases”).

Allergen Diseases

What causes an allergen disease? Pollen? Cat dander? Shellfish? Peanuts? These are some of the answers likely to be given by the average person, yet he or she would be wrong. All of these substances certainly have strong links to allergic reaction. Indeed, allergy counselors would add milk, soy, and wheat to the list [52]. However these cannot be root causes. If so, everyone would suffer from allergen disease. The root problem is not the triggers (pollen, peanuts, etc.), but a failure of the body’s defenses, the immune system.

Of course, you need to pay attention to the triggers, but you should not be sidetracked into thinking they are all-important. The chief priority is to restore sanity to the deranged immune system. Allergen disease is a disease of modern industrial societies for similar reasons that cancer has become much more common.

Usually, the sufferer is sensitive to quite a few allergens and the allergy only breaks out when several of them have accumulated. Then, it is the last one that gets the blame. Even worse, often the reaction can be delayed up to 24 hours after exposure. The average sufferer has no way of making the link between the trigger and the onset of the allergic reaction. That is why it is difficult to isolate the culprit: there are many of them and the exposure from day to day will be in a different order. Many of these complications are removed when we eat in conformity with the Savanna Model. As soon as we stop eating grains, dairy, and legumes, we remove a massive burden of allergy triggers.

Many of our dietary errors aggravate allergy symptoms such as inflammation, swelling, and mucus production. The first error is an overconsumption of omega-6 oils, which produce “bad” prostaglandins that instruct cells to inflame, swell, and secrete mucus. They also increase histamine production. In contrast, omega-3 oils produce “good” prostaglandins that suppress histamine, inflammation, and swelling. That is another reason why it is vital in fighting allergen diseases to have the essential fatty acid ratio in balance. The second error is abnormally high insulin levels, which also generate abnormal levels of histamine and other allergic reaction chemicals. That is why it is important to consume a low-glycemic diet.

A major reason why allergens have their effect is that their molecules closely resemble a genuine enemy molecule, such as a virus. A sweetly tuned immune system has no difficulty distinguishing them, but a crazed immune system just lashes out indiscriminately. It sets in motion an unstoppable chain reaction and sometimes sets up the sufferer for a lifetime of allergic reactions.

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This is how it happens: the immune system labels bad guys with a criminal record. That way, if it comes across them again, it knows straight away to give them a hard time. It does this all the time with virus infections and other foreign invaders. For example, when you have a disease like measles, the body remembers it for a very long time and you are unlikely to suffer it again. This works fine as long as the “criminal” label is correctly applied. But this is not always the case: the confused immune system sometimes labels harmless molecules as “criminal.” When that happens, the immune system launches an attack that is even more rapid and violent when it meets that falsely labeled “criminal” on subsequent occasions. This condition is known as hypersensitivity and is why allergies can take a long time to shake off. We have to give the immune system time to “forget” the falsely applied “criminal” label, which can take many months or even years.

Allergies

Allergy symptoms range from the mild response of sneezing and a runny nose to the sometimes life-threatening reaction called anaphylactic shock. During an anaphylactic reaction, the airways in the lungs constrict intensely, making it impossible to breathe, and the blood pressure falls precipitously.

Allergen Connection. A deranged immune system is capable of taking exception to foreign particles from almost any source. However, the biggest sources of allergens are the following:

Grains. All grains (wheat, rye, barley, corn, rice, oats, etc.) are allergenic.

Milk and Dairy Products. A number of constituents of milk are highly allergenic: lactose, casein, and lactalbumin are the main examples. All milks and their products are concerned—milk itself, yogurt, and cheese. And it doesn’t matters if they are low fat. Dairy products from other creatures (such as sheep and goats) are just as bad.

Legumes. Lentils and beans contain many allergenic substances. Soy, however, is the biggest problem. It has the most powerful allergens, and soy in various forms is an all-pervading, ingredient in a huge range of processed foods. A Swedish study found that in four out of five fatal reactions to food the deaths

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were due to soy [53]. The amount of soy needed to kill was small: between 0.25–2.0 teaspoons.

Essential Fatty Acid Connection. Many studies have demonstrated that a high intake of omega-6 oils is harmful. The ideal is to have a rich omega-3 intake in balance with omega-6 [54].

Colon Health Connection. Hot spices encourage allergic reactions. Hot spices such as paprika, cayenne pepper, and chili pepper interact with the lining of the digestive tract and allow allergens to invade the body [55].

Stress Connection. There are many non-dietary triggers of allergies and one of the most common is stress. Stress hormones deregulate powerful immune system chemicals called cytokines, causing them to unleash allergic reactions.330

If you are bringing up young children, you have a chance to ensure they start life with a properly developed immune system. In order to mature properly, a child’s immune system needs to be constantly challenged by naturally occurring foreign particles. That way, the immune system is properly programmed with the right responses. One study found that children growing up in a large family, sharing bedrooms with siblings, and having a dog reduces the risk of developing allergies in adulthood [56].

Asthma

Asthma is an inflammatory process with abnormal spasm of the bronchial tubes, mucus production, fluid in the lungs, and inflammatory cell migration. The prevalence of asthma has increased dramatically in recent years [57]. What has changed so much to cause this?

Essential Fatty Acid Connection. Spasms, mucus, fluid, and inflammation are all conditions driven by powerful “bad” prostaglandins. Once again, the culprit is overconsumption of omega-6 oils [58]. The increase in asthma in the last half century is directly linked to the increased consumption of corn oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil, and other omega-6 vegetable oils.

Colon Health Connection. A leaky colon increases the risk of asthma [59]. Allergen Connection. The consumption of dairy products increases the risk of getting asthma [60]

Non-Starchy Plant Food Connection. Studies show that lung performance is better in those who eat fresh fruit at least once a day, [61]. those who eat at least five apples a week, [62] and those who have a high intake of fruit and vegetables [63]. In other words, poor lung function, including asthma, is in large part due to a deficiency of plant food micronutrients.

Sunshine Connection. Dr. Peter Black of Auckland University, in New Zealand, found that the sunshine vitamin, vitamin D, improved lung function, even in ex-smokers. [65]

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Migraine  
Migraine is a mechanism in the brain that becomes activated in response to various trigger factors, such as routine stress, hormonal fluctuations, sleep disturbances, certain foods, or even changes in weather conditions. The migraine mechanism involves many parts of the brain, various neurotransmitters, and, ultimately, the activation of nerves and swelling and inflammation of blood vessels around the head. The greater the degree of blood vessel swelling and inflammation, the worse the headache.

Allergy Connection. A number of allergens may play a role in migraines:

Grains. Gluten has a particularly strong connection. Sufferers of full-blown gluten allergy (celiac disease) are also much more likely to suffer migraines [66].

Dairy. Dairy, in particular dairy protein [67]. Pain-killers. Sometimes the medication that one takes to relieve pain actually makes it worse, a phenomenon called “rebound.” The only solution is to grit your teeth and cut out your usual pain relievers.

Histamine. This powerful chemical is contained in many fish, many cheeses, and some vegetables [68].

Non-Starchy Plant Food Connection. A low plant food diet, deficient in micronutrients, notably magnesium [69] and riboflavin (vitamin B2),[70] sharply increases the likelihood of developing a migraine.

Blood Sugar Control Connection. High abnormal insulin levels have the effect of manufacturing abnormal levels of histamine. Diabetics are much more vulnerable to migraine [71]. The low glycemic diet is how nature intended.

Autoimmune Diseases

In autoimmune diseases, the immune system turns against the body’s own organs and tissues. Many of the same processes are at work as for allergen diseases.

Rheumatoid Arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis is more common in women than in men and usually strikes between the ages of 20 and 40. It is due to an abnormal immune reaction in which the immune system attacks and destroys the lining of the joints. The consequences are pain, inflammation, swelling, and eventually deformity of the joints and disability. Not content with producing these unpleasant symptoms, the immune system then launches a second wave of attack. Its killer T-cells swarm to the area where it has previously created inflammation. In the process, the T-cells produce a substance called OPGL, which cannibalizes and attacks cartilage tissue [72] Studies over the years point to three main factors causing rheumatoid arthritis.

Fatty Acid Connection. The production of inflammatory chemicals caused by the overconsumption of omega-6 oils is one factor. Omega-6 oils are transformed into chemical messengers that instruct cells to inflame, swell, and secrete

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mucus. This is the perfect recipe for encouraging rheumatoid arthritis. In contrast, omega-3 oil consumption calms inflammation and swelling. Cutting down on omega-6 oils and boosting omega-3 oil intake is helpful. [73] Asecond culprit is saturated fat in all of its forms: animal origin, plant origin, and man-made (margarine, trans-fatty acids, and hydrogenated fats). Saturated fats block and interrupt the work of helpful chemical messengers from omega-3 oils, encouraging inflammation. [74] It is essential to eliminate saturated fat.

Non-starchy Plant Food Connection. The body needs antioxidants to quench the aggressive action of free radicals on joint tissue. Studies have found that people with rheumatoid arthritis are much more likely to have lower blood levels of antioxidants such as vitamin A, vitamin E, and beta-carotene in the years before the disorder is diagnosed. [75]. There is only one source of the cocktail of antioxidants that works: non-starchy plant food. [76].

Allergen Connection. Arthritis is often triggered by an allergic reaction. Some of the most common suspected allergens are grains, especially gluten, [77] and milk and dairy [78].

Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease) is a disorder of the joints in which the cartilage disintegrates and bone rubs on bone. It is the most common joint disease, affecting more than 80% of those who reach the age of 70. Osteoarthritis is, in part, due to poor bone and cartilage building. As soon as humans took up farming grains, they started to suffer osteoarthritis. [79]. Two factors were at work. First, the presence of wheat antinutrients irritated joint lubrication. Second, the drudgery of grinding the wheat, day in and day out, between two large slabs of stone put an unnatural strain on joints that were not designed for it.

Grain Connection. Grain antinutrients, notably lectins, depress cartilage building.

Mechanical Load Connection. Unusual mechanical wear-and-tear on the joints can lead to osteoarthritis. Today, osteoarthritis is most common in the loadbearing joints of the body, the hips and knees. Hip and knee replacement surgery is growing astronomically. Just in the 13 years from 1990 to 2002, hip replacements increased by 50% and knee replacements by 200%. [80]. The main problem? Overweight and obese bodies. Nature never designed the hips and knees to support that kind of weight. This is one factor which is easy to understand and remedy.

Essential Fatty Acid Connection. Omega-6 oils depress the hormones that build bone and cartilage, while omega-3 oils encourage bone and cartilage building. [81]. Once again, we need to cut down sharply on omega-6 oil intake and boost omega-3 oil intake to the point where the two are in balance.

Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune-induced inflammation that destroys

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the fatty insulation (myelin sheath) surrounding the nerves. Surprisingly, there are strong links between MS and lifestyle.

Allergen Connection. Wheat gluten is the strongest allergen that we know of. It tricks the immune system’s killer T-cells into attacking myelin molecules because of their similarity to virus proteins. [82 There are many reports of complete remission of MS on gluten-free diets. [83 Milk is the second most powerful allergen and studies show that it also causes the immune system to attack myelin. [84].

Colon Health Connection. A leaky colon allows vast quantities of milk and gluten allergens to invade the bloodstream and create their mischief throughout the body. In a double whammy, the colon is made leaky, in part, by the allergens themselves. [85].

Fatty Acid Connection. For a long time, scientists have suspected that omega-3 es